Women Empowerment - Myth Or Reality

You can tell the condition of a nation by looking atpromote Women's empowerment have been
the status of its women.measured;
- Jawaharlal Nehru4. A summary of the evidence on how Women's
Empowerment of any section of a society is a mythempowerment affects important development
until they are conferred equality before law. Theoutcomes such as health, education, fertility behavior,
foundation of freedom, justice and fraternity is basedincome levels, etc.
on the recognition of the inherent dignity and ofHow Should Empowerment be Operationally Defined?
equal and inalienable rights to all the members of the"Empowerment" has been used to represent a wide
society. The Universal Declaration of Human Rightsrange of concepts and to describe a proliferation of
adopted and proclaimed by the General Assembly ofoutcomes. The term has been used more often to
the United Nations on 10th December 1948,advocate for certain types of policies and
envisaged in Article 2 that "every one is entitled to allintervention strategies than to analyze them, as
the rights and freedoms set forth in this declarationdemonstrated by a number of documents from the
without distinction of any kind."United Nations, the Association for Women in
It has traditionally been accepted that the thread ofDevelopment, the Declaration made at the
family weaves the fabric of Indian society. WomenMicro-credit Summit, and other organizations. Feminist
are considered as the hub center of the family. Still, inactivist writings often promote empowerment of
the era of political domination by foreigners, theindividuals and organizations of Women but vary in
women in India suffered most. A few social reformthe extent to which they conceptualize or discuss
measures were taken towards the later 19th andhow to identify it.
early 20th century during the British regime. TheRelevant studies describe empowerment as "the
inception of Mahatma Gandhi in the National freedomenhancement of assets and capabilities of diverse
movement ushered a new concept of massindividuals and groups to engage, influence and hold
mobilization. Women constituted about 50% of theaccountable the institutions which affect them." In
country's total population, he, therefore, involvedgeneral, Women do not take a central place in much
women in the nation's liberation movement. The massof the literature on social inclusion or empowerment.
participation of women directly in the freedomThe Process of Empowerment
struggle was the great divide in the history ofThere are various attempts in the literature to
(Feminist movement) empowerment of women.develop a comprehensive understanding of
They shed age-old disabilities and shared theempowerment through breaking the process down
responsibility of liberation of their motherland withinto key components.
their counter parts. The freedom of India thusMEASURING WOMEN'S EMPOWERMENT
became synonymous with the empowerment ofMeasuring Empowerment from a Universalist
women. In this context the date of India's politicalPerspective
freedom (August 15, 1947) is a landmark in theAs we move from a discussion of conceptualizing
history of women empowerment in India. It broughtempowerment to measuring it, it is important to note
in its wake a great consciousness in our society forthat measures of empowerment must involve
human dignity. It was realized that every citizen ofstandards that lie outside localized gender systems
independent India be accorded equal treatment underand a recognition of universal elements of gender
the law.subordination.
This is the urban age and Women along with menAs we move from a discussion of conceptualizing
are here to make an impact, let's not ignore them,empowerment to measuring it, it is important to note
let's listen and prioritize them. In almost all societiesthat measures of empowerment must involve
through history, Women have occupied secondarystandards that lie outside localized gender systems
position vis-à-vis men.and a recognition of universal elements of gender
Women's rights and issues have always been asubordination (Sen and Grown 1987; Bisnath and Elson
subject of serious concern of academicians,1999; Nussbaum 2000). It is clear from the literature
intelligentsia and policy makers. From pastoral societyon gender and empowerment that the role of
to contemporary information and global society, thegender in development cannot be understood
role of Women has changed drastically. The role of awithout understanding the socio-cultural (as well as
typical "Grihani" (house wife) who catered to all thepolitical and economic) contexts in which development
requirements of the house holds including the rearingtakes place. The concept of empowerment only has
and upbringing of children in various sub roles ofmeaning within these specific contexts. At the same
daughter, daughter-in-law, wife, mother, aunt etc. hastime, operational definitions (e.g. definitions embodied
been played quite efficiently. The continuity ofin indicators to be applied in the context of
changes in socio-economic and psycho-culturaldevelopment assistance policies, programs, and
aspects of human living has influenced the role ofprojects) should be consistent with the spirit of
Women. With the process of Industrialization,international conventions to which countries providing
Modernization and Globalization showing its deepinternational development assistance have been
impact on the human society all over the world, thesignatories. The approach based in universal human
role and responsibilities of Women has attained newrights offers the best operational framework for this
definition and perspective. Further this has also led totask.
addition of responsibilities and widened the role ofBecause empowerment is multi-dimensional,
Women who also shares the financial responsibilities.researchers must use care in constructing index or
The Women issues have received tremendousscale variables relating to empowerment Such
attention in the planning circle and in wide intellectualvariables may mask differential effects of
discussions and forums at national and globalinterventions on distinct aspects of empowerment.
platforms. However the existing lacuna in theInappropriate combining of items relating to gender
formulation and execution of the policies has notand empowerment may also mask differential
changed the grass root situation to a great extent.effects of the component variables on outcomes of
On the encouraging front, in the South Asianinterest.
countries there have been relatively increasingCHALLENGES TO MEASURING EMPOWERMENT
economic participation in past one decade. StatisticallyEmpowerment is Context Specific
the rate of literacy among Women has alsoOne of the major difficulties in measuring
increased. The educational and occupational patternsempowerment is that the behaviors and attributes
have also changed and widened with Womenthat signify empowerment in one context often have
entering the domains, which till decade back wasdifferent meanings elsewhere. For example, a shift in
considered to be dominated by men. Further therewomen's ability to visit a health center without
has been encouraging rise in the percentage of thegetting permission from a male household member
Women joining service sector especially Banking andmay be a sign of empowerment in rural Bangladesh
Information Technology. In the background of thebut not in, for example, urban Peru. Context can also
gigantic transformation, the core issue, which stillbe important in determining the extent to which
remains unanswered, is that of Women's right andempowerment at the household or individual level is a
empowerment.determinant of development outcomes.
The Women rights are the means by which aCRITICAL PARADIGMS
dignified living is ensured thereby safeguarding herThere are certain critical paradigms, which need to be
privileges. Thus the basic fundamental rights ofexamined from the point of view of women issues.
speech, freedom and decision-making are her basic1. Constitutional Provisions and Policies: The principle of
rights as an individual and citizen. The right forgender equality is enshrined in the Constitution of
education and employment are significant for WomenIndia (in the Preamble and fundamental rights) where
development and national development in the widerby the constitution upholds and grants the equality to
sense. The power and freedom to exercise thesewomen. The National commission for women, which
rights is Women empowerment. Women rights andwas set up in 1990 through an Act of Parliament to
empowerment are not independent of each other.safeguard the rights and legal entitlements of
The Women empowerment can only be facilitatedwomen, is considered to be the apex body to ensure
only if she is able to exercise her right in therights and work towards the women empowerment.
socio-economic spheres of decision-making.In terms of five-year plans the fifth five-year plan
AN OVERVIEW(1974-78) is considered to be very crucial from the
India, with a population of 989 million, is the world'spoint of view of women development with 1975
second most populous country. Of that number, 120being declared as International Year of Women.
million are Women who live in poverty.The 73rd and 74th Amendments of constitution of
India has 16 percent of the world's population, butIndia in 1993 are landmarks to ensure political
only 2.4 percent of its land, resulting in greatempowerment of women. These provisions surely
pressures on its natural resources.ensure of legal protection of women's rights, but
Over 70 percent of India's population currentlysocio-economic rights of freedom and decision-making
derives their livelihood from land resources, whichis still not realized to the extent of social
includes 84 percent of the economically-activeempowerment. One of the reasons is the rigid
Women.patriarchal structure of the Indian Society.
India is one of the few countries where malesNational Policy for the empowerment of women
significantly outnumber females, and this imbalance(2001):
has increased over time. India's maternal mortalityThe goal of the National Policy for the empowerment
rates in rural areas are among the worlds highest.of women is to bring about the advancement,
From a global perspective, Indian accounts for 19development and empowerment of women. Some of
percent of all lives births and 27 percent of allthe specific objectives of this policy are: a) Creating
maternal deaths.an environment through positive economic and social
"There seems to be a consensus that higher femalepolicies for full development of women to enable
mortality between ages one and five and highthem to realize their full potential, b) Equal access to
maternal mortality rates result in a deficit of femaleshealth care, quality education at all levels, career and
in the population. In the year 1990 it was estimatedvocational guidance etc, c) Elimination of discrimination
that deaths of young girls in India exceed those ofand all forms of violence against women and girl child.
young boys by over 300,000 each year, and everyThe policy also provides for economic empowerment
sixth infant death is specifically due to genderthrough poverty eradication, micro credit
discrimination." Of the 15 million baby girls born in Indiaprogrammes, training of women to facilitate them in
each year, nearly 25 percent will not live to see theirplaying efficient role in agriculture and industry. The
15th birthday.social empowerment of women is facilitated through
The Indian constitution grants Women equal rightseffective provisions of Education, Health, Nutrition,
with men, but strong patriarchal traditions persist,Drinking water and Sanitation, gender sensitization
with Women's lives shaped by customs that areetc. Elimination of all forms of violence against
centuries old. In most Indian families, a daughter iswomen, physical and mental, whether at domestic or
viewed as a liability, and she is conditioned to believesocietal levels, including those arising from customs,
that she is inferior and subordinate to men. Sons aretraditions and accepted practices.
idolized and celebrated. May you be the mother of aThe effective implementation of the policy at all
hundred sons is a common Hindu wedding blessing.levels can be a gigantic step for women development
The origin of the Indian idea of appropriate femaleand can set an example for other countries in South
behavior can be traced to the rules laid down byAsia.
Manu in 200 B.C.: "by a young girl, by a youngWOMEN'S EMPOWERMENT ISSUES AND REMEDIES
woman, or even by an aged one, nothing must beIN INDIA
done independently, even in her own house". "InEmpowerment of women is a gradual and
childhood a female must be subject to her father, incomplicated process. It involves changing the way of
youth to her husband, when her lord is dead to herthinking of the whole society. From long time it has
sons; a woman must never be independent."been stamped on the minds of the people that
WOMEN ARE MALNOURISHEDwomen are inferior to men. It is not easy to change
The exceptionally high rates of malnutrition in Souththe stubborn attitude of the people. In rural India,
Asia are rooted deeply in the soil of inequalityWomen have inadequate access to education, health
between men and Women.facilities, healthy diet etc.
This point is made in the article, The Asian Enigma,In India gradually the percentage of working women
published by Unicef in the 1996 Progress of Nations,is rising. Only by contributing towards income of the
in which the rates of childhood malnutrition in Southfamily the women can get rid of the status of
Asia are compared with those in Africa. We learn"burden".
that malnutrition is far worse in South Asia, directlyEntrepreneur women can positively contribute to
due to the fact that Women in South Asia have lessattain the goal of women empowerment.
voice and freedom of movement than in AfricaEntrepreneurship provides women for what she is
despite the fact that in comparison to Africa , Asia islonging for - control over the resources and power
far more better in terms of economy.of decision making. Such women can help in poverty
MATERNAL MORTALITYalleviation by providing job opportunities for many
India's maternal mortality rates in rural areas areother deserving women.
among the highest in the world.Surveys have proved that a large percentage of
A factor that contributes to India's high maternaleducated but not trained women are present in the
mortality rate is the reluctance to seek medical carecountry. Such women can be given training in a
for pregnancy - it is viewed as a temporary conditionspecific field like making homemade papads or pickles,
that will disappear. The estimates nationwide are thathandicrafts and many such things and can start their
only 40-50 percent of Women receive any antenatalown small enterprise.
care. Evidence from the states of Bihar, Rajasthan,Self-employment is a blessing for poor and deserving
Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat findwomen as sufficient job opportunities are not
registration for maternal and child health services toavailable in the country. In small sector, the women
be as low as 5-22 percent in rural areas and 21-51may be owner of the enterprise may be a manager
percent in urban areas.or controller or may be a worker in the enterprise.
Even a woman who has had difficulties with previousTenth plan is initiating women empowerment by
pregnancies is usually treated with home remediesimplementing specific strategies like such social
only for three reasons: the decision that a pregnantenvironment would be created by providing
woman seek help rests with the mother-in-law andnecessary services so that women would be
husband; financial considerations; and fear that theproficient to utilize their potential, To make the
treatment may be more harmful than the malady.women economically self-reliant, proper training would
JOB IMPACT ON MATERNAL HEALTHbe provided to them. Equal rights for the women
"Working conditions result in premature and stillbirths."would be provided so that there is no social, political
The tasks performed by Women are usually thosediscrimination against her.
that require them to be in one position for longIn the present scenario, where phenomenal
periods of time, which can adversely affect theiradvancements are occurring in each and every
reproductive health. A study in a rice-growing belt ofsphere, women empowerment has become crucial
coastal Maharashtra found that 40 percent of allfor alleviating poverty and procuring over all growth.
infant deaths occurred in the months of July toWe can not abscond the fact that Women's rights
October. The study also found that a majority ofare human rights and should be treated as such. .The
births were either premature or stillbirths. The studyfact that women's rights need to be safeguarded in
attributed this to the squatting position that had toevery country of the world cannot be
be assumed during July and August, the riceoveremphasized. In a historic decision, the Rajasthan
transplanting months.government is changing the service rules to punish
WOMEN ARE UNEDUCATEDemployees who are found guilty of torturing their
"Women and girls receive far less education thanwives. As reported in a national daily, the punishment
men, due both to social norms and fears of violence."could involve sacking and action would correspond
India has the largest population of non-school-goingthe crime, with punishments including suspension and
working girls.stoppage of increments.
Although substantial progress has been achievedA small step forward in terms of marriage was taken
since India won its independence in 1947, when lesswhen the Hindu Marriage Act was enacted in 1955.
than 8 percent of females were literate, the gainsThe term Hindu in this case includes Buddhists, Jains,
have not been rapid enough to keep pace withSikhs and their denominations. Several laws have
population growth: there were 16 million more illiteratebeen enacted including the Child Marriage Restraint
females in 1991 than in 1981.Act of 1929 and the current Special Marriage
WOMEN ARE OVERWORKEDAct,1954 which governs civil marriages. In this Act,
"Women work longer hours and their work is morefor a boy and girl to get married they must have
arduous than men's. Still, men report that "Women,completed 21 and 18 years of age respectively.
like children, eat and do nothing."Bigamy is prohibited in this Act and each party is
Women work roughly twice as many as many hoursexpected to give consent to the marriage. For a civil
as men.marriage, three witnesses are necessary. Progressive
Women's contribution to agriculture - whether it belaws such as these protect the woman. Under the
subsistence farming or commercial agriculture - whenIslamic law, marriage is considered a contract and a
measured in terms of the number of tasksnikaah is performed with several do's and don'ts. The
performed and time spent, is greater than men. "TheParsis are governed by the Parsi Marriage and
extent of Women's contribution is aptly highlighted byDivorce Act, 1936. Christians are governed by the
a micro study conducted in the Indian HimalayasChristian Marriage Act, 1872 and the marriage usually
which found that on a one-hectare farm, a pair oftakes place in a church.
bullocks works 1,064 hours, a man 1,212 hours and aThe report on the Convention on the Elimination of
woman 3,485 hours in a year."All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)
THE INVISIBILITY OF WOMEN'S WORKreleased by the Government recently mentions the
Women's work is rarely recognized.steps taken by it to contain the negative impact of
Many maintain that Women's economic dependencerestructuring of the economy that India has
on men impacts their power within the family. Withembarked upon. The Government of India made
increased participation in income-earning activities, notspecial efforts to increase its support for social
only will there be more income for the family, butsectors and started a number of schemes aimed at
gender inequality should be reduced. This issue isthe poor, particularly poor women and women in the
particularly salient in India because studies show ainformal sector. These include the Rashtriya Mahila
very low level of female participation in the laborKosh and the Mahila Samakhya programs.
force. This under-reporting is attributed to theKeeping in line with the governmentýs policy on
frequently held view that Women's work is notequal opportunity, there are 65 women in senior
economically productive.positions in the Indian Foreign Service around the
Women's employment in family farms or businessesworld. For the first time after Independence the
is rarely recognized as economically productive, eitherhighest post in the Foreign Service, is to be occupied
by men or Women. And, any income generated fromby a female foreign secretary, Chokila Iyer. It is
this work is generally controlled by the men. Suchcommendable that despite various hurdles and
work is unlikely to increase Women's participation inmindsets, the Government has managed to ensure
allocating family finances. In a 1992 study ofequal career opportunities for women.
family-based texile workers, male children who helpedThe government has taken a number of steps and
in a home-based handloom mill were given pocketenacted a number of legislations to protect and
money, but the adult Women and girls were not.safeguard women and ensure that their rights are
WOMEN ARE ILLTREATEDnot abused. One such measure is the Maternity
"Violence against Women and girls is the mostBenefits Act, 1961.
pervasive human rights violation in the world today."RECOMMENDATIONS
"Opening the door on the subject of violence againstWe propose the following next steps for moving
the world's females is like standing at the thresholdforward the agenda on measuring women's
of an immense dark chamber vibrating with collectiveempowerment:
anguish, but with the sounds of protest throttled1. Development of a framework of domains or
back to a murmur. Where there should be outragedimensions that can be applied across settings would
aimed at an intolerable status quo there is insteadbe the natural next step for building on the strengths
denial, and the largely passive acceptance of 'theof the existing literature on the conceptualization of
way things are."empowerment. Procedures for determining indicators
Male violence against Women is a worldwidefor each domain, at different levels of aggregation,
phenomenon. Although not every woman hasand across contexts, should also be developed. This
experienced it, and many expect not to, fear ofeffort would move the measurement of women's
violence is an important factor in the lives of mostempowerment agenda forward considerably by
Women. It determines what they do, when they doallowing for greater specification of exactly what
it, where they do it, and with whom. Fear of violenceaspect of empowerment-i.e. which dimension-is of
is a cause of Women's lack of participation ininterest, and realistic specifications of the type of
activities beyond the home, as well as inside it. Withinchange that can be expected over a specific period
the home, Women and girls may be subjected toof time, and given specific interventions. It would also
physical and sexual abuse as punishment or asmove forward efforts to develop context-specific
culturally justified assaults. These acts shape theirmeasures that more closely resemble what they are
attitude to life, and their expectations of themselves.meant to measure and reduce the reliance on proxy
In recent years, there has been an alarming rise inmeasures.
atrocities against Women in India. Every 26 minutes a2. Better, more coordinated efforts at data collection
woman is molested. Every 34 minutes a rape takesare needed. For example, the process component of
place. Every 42 minutes a sexual harassment incidentwomen's empowerment cannot be effectively
occurs. Every 43 minutes a woman is kidnapped. Andcaptured in any measurement scheme without the
every 93 minutes a woman is burnt to death overavailability of data across time. Attention to process
dowry.also requires a discussion of the appropriate time
One-quarter of the reported rapes involve girls underperiods for data collection of various types of
the age of 16 but the vast majority are neverindicators. At the aggregate level, a broader range of
reported. Although the penalty is severe, convictionsmore sophisticated, gender- disaggregated data are
are rare.needed with regard to the labor force, market
WOMEN ARE POWERLESSconditions, legal and political rights, political and social
Legal protection of Women's rights have little effectprocesses. At the household level, data need to be
in the face of prevailing patriarchal traditions.more frequently collected for important, but relatively
Be it in the case of Marriage:under-utilized indicators such as time use or violence
"Women are subordinate in most marriages."against women.
Child Marriages3. Greater attention to measuring women's
"Child marriages keep Women subjugated."empowerment at "meso" levels is required along with
Dowries:efforts at documenting the impact of program and
Women are kept subordinate, and are evenpolicy interventions. For programmatic and policy
murdered, by the practice of dowry.evaluation, existing models of monitoring and
Divorce:evaluation that are effective need to be tapped, and
Divorce is not a viable option.their adequacy for women's empowerment as an
Divorce is rare - it is a considered a shamefuloutcome or intermediary process should be assessed.
admission of a woman's failure as a wife andAt a minimum, quasi-experimental evaluation designs
daughter-in-law. In 1990, divorced Women made up aand the collection of baseline and endline data must
miniscule 0.08 percent of the total female population.be considered in implementing programs aimed at
Maintenance rights of Women in the case of divorceempowering women. Measurement of institutional and
are weak. Although both Hindu and Muslim lawnormative change in communities requires new and
recognize the rights of Women and children toinnovative approaches. One approach to consider is
maintenance, in practice, maintenance is rarely set atthe business school model of case studies.
a sufficient amount and is frequently violated.Documentation through narratives which are then
Inheritanceanalyzed using qualitative techniques would be
Women's rights to inheritance are limited andanother option. Exploration of the work on collective
frequently violated.action may also provide further guidance. This is
In the mid-1950s the Hindu personal laws, which applyclearly an area where a review of lessons learned
to all Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains, werefrom related efforts and cross- disciplinary
overhauled, banning polygamy and giving Womenapproaches would be helpful.
rights to inheritance, adoption and divorce. The Muslim4. Greater interdisciplinary engagement is necessary
personal laws differ considerably from that of theto develop indicators and approaches that capture
Hindus, and permit polygamy. Despite various lawsthe key elements of women's empowerment, have
protecting Women's rights, traditional patriarchalscientific merit, and acceptability among important
attitudes still prevail and are strengthened andstakeholders. Although at this stage we have drawn
perpetuated in the home.only from literature that has been at the core of the
EMPOWERMENT AND WOMEN: VARIABLE INdiscourse on women's empowerment, it is clear that
INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTcontinued efforts at moving this work forward would
The World Bank has identified empowerment as onebenefit from drawing on a wide range of disciplines.
of the key constituent elements of povertyMoreover, based on what we reviewed from
reduction, and as a primary development assistancesociology, demography, economics, and anthropology,
goal. The Bank has also made gender mainstreamingit is clear that there is overlap, but not much
a priority in development assistance, and is in theinteraction across disciplines. Further interdisciplinary
process of implementing an ambitious strategy to thisengagement would greatly facilitate the task of
effect. The promotion of Women's empowerment astranslating the current consensus on conceptualization
a development goal is based on a dual argument: thatto the actual measurement of women's
social justice is an important aspect of human welfareempowerment.
and is intrinsically worth pursuing; and that Women'sCONCLUSION
empowerment is a means to other ends. A recentAs UN Secretary General Kofi Annan has stated,
policy research report by the World Bank, for"Gender equality is more than a goal in itself. It is a
example, identifies gender equality both as aprecondition for meeting the challenge of reducing
development objective in itself, and as a means topoverty, promoting sustainable development and
promote growth, reduce poverty and promotebuilding good governance."
better governance. A similar dual rationale forIn a globalizing world, gender equality and
supporting Women's empowerment has beenempowerments of women are vital tools-to achieve
articulated in the policy statements put forth atsustainable developments of societies, and are even
several high level international conferences in the pastadmitted by the fools!
decade (e.g. the Beijing Platform for Action, theStill, the violence towards women is an epidemic
Beijing declaration and resolution, the Cairoagainst which no country is immune-
Programme of Action, the Millennium Declaration, andAnd today, we face the greater challenges of human
the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms ofrights and a non-melodious tune!
Discrimination against Women.In the arena of politics, the poor are excluded from
Yet to date neither the World Bank nor any othergovernance, regardless of the gender- And women
major development agency has developed a rigorousare victims of other people's decisions 'Cause they
method for measuring and tracking changes in levelsare assumed to be tender! So the entire spectrum of
of empowerment. In the absence of such measures,women's roles to combat poverty, hunger, and
it is difficult for the international developmentdisease- Need to be re-examined under the new
community to be confident that their efforts toMillennium lights before the roles decease! Impacts of
empower women are succeeding and that thismodern conflicts now affect the global women and
important Millennium Development Goal will begirls without a doubt- But they're neither initiators nor
achieved.prosecutors of conflicts, or matching game of shout!
Thus, this review attempts to the following:Determined efforts must be taken to end the
1. An indication of the different ways in whichimpunity surrounding this lamentable claw- And the
empowerment has been conceptualized;perpetrators must be brought to justice, and told
2. A critical examination of some of the approachesthat they are not above the law!
that have been developed to measure and trackOnly through action to remedy discrimination against
changes in Women's empowerment;women can the vision of India's independence - an
3. An examination of some of the ways in which theIndia where all people have the chance to live health
effects of policies and programmatic interventions toand productive lives - be realized.